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Architecture
.
Architecture the art of building in which human requirements and construction materials are related so as to furnish practical use as well as an aesthetic solution, thus differing from the pure utility of engineering construction.
As an art, architecture is essentially abstract and nonrepresentational and involves the manipulation of the relationships of spaces, volumes, planes, masses, and voids.
Time is also an important factor in architecture, since a building is usually comprehended in a succession of experiences rather than all at once.
In most architecture there is no one vantage point from which the whole structure can be understood.
The use of light and shadow, as well as surface decoration, can greatly enhance a structure.
The analysis of building types provides an insight into past cultures and eras.
Behind each of the greater styles lies not a casual trend nor a vogue, but a period of serious and urgent experimentation directed toward answering the needs of a specific way of life.
Climate, methods of labor, available materials, and economy of means all impose their dictates.
Each of the greater styles has been aided by the discovery of new construction methods.
Once developed, a method survives tenaciously, giving way only when social changes or new building techniques have reduced it.
That evolutionary process is exemplified by the history of modern architecture, which developed from the first uses of structural iron and steel in the mid - 19th cent.
Until the 20th cent.
There were three great developments in architectural construction—the post - and - lintel, or trabeated, system ; the arch system, either the cohesive type, employing plastic materials hardening into a homogeneous mass, or the thrust type, in which the loads are received and counterbalanced at definite points ; and the modern steel - skeleton system.
In the 20th cent.
New forms of building have been devised, with the use of reinforced concrete and the development of geodesic and stressed - skin (light material, reinforced) structures.
See also articles under countries, e.
G. , American architecture ; styles, e.
G. , baroque ; periods, e.
G. , Gothic architecture and art ; individual architects, e.
G. , Andrea Palladio ; individual stylistic and structural elements, e.
G. , tracery, orientation ; specific building types, e.
G. , pagoda, apartment house.
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The main façade of the Academy of Arts overlooks the Neva.
The building was designed by the architects Alexander Kokorinov and Jean Batist Vallin de la 35 Mothe in 1764.
The construction of the building was finished in 1788.
It is one of the vivid examples of early Classicism in Russian architecture.
Over the entrance there is an inscription in bronze letters ‗To Free Arts.
The year of 1765‖.
It was the first building in classic style in Saint Petersburg.
The well - balanced proportions of the main façade are particularly impressive.
Now the building houses the Saint Petersburg Repin Institute of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture.
The idea of creation of a Russia artistic school belonged to Peter I but it was realized only partially at that time.
In 1757, Count Ivan Shuvalov came forward with a project to create the Academy of Fine arts.
The Academy of the Three Most Noble Arts (painting, sculpture and architecture) was founded in 1757.
The first students graduated from the Academy in 1762.
The academy of Arts has played an important role in the development of Russian art.
A lot of famous Russian painters and sculptors studied and worked there.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the graduates of the Academy of Arts deserved the European recognition.
Use the words from the box and complete the sentences?
Use the words from the box and complete the sentences.
The maps on pages 66 and 67 can help you.
Use the words from the box and complete the sentences the maps on pages 66 and 67 can help you?
Use the words from the box and complete the sentences the maps on pages 66 and 67 can help you.
Fill in the gaps?
Fill in the gaps.
Use the words and expressions from the box.
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Architecture is the art and the technique of building, employed to fulfil the practical and expressive requirements of civilized people.
Almost every settled society that possesses the techniques for building produces architecture.
It is necessary in all but the simplest cultures ; without it, man is confined to a primitive struggle with the elements ; with it, he has not only a defence against the natural environment but also the benefits of a human environment, a prerequisite for and a symbol of the development of civilized institution.
The characteristics that distinguish a work of architecture from other man - made structures are the suitability of the work to use by human beings in general and the adaptability of it to particular human activities ; the stability and permanence of the work's construction ; and the communication of experience and ideas through its form.
All these conditions must be met in architecture.
The second is a constant, while the first and the third vary in relative importance according to the social function of buildings.
If the function is chiefly utilitarian, as in a
factory, communication is of less importance.
If the function is chiefly expressive, as in a monumental tomb, utility is a minor concern.
In some buildings such as churches and city halls, utility and communication may be of equal importance.
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The architect usually begins to work when the site type and cost of a building have been determined.
Planning the environment.
The natural environment is at once a hindrance and a help, and the architect seeks both to invite its aid and to repel its attacks.
To make buildings habitable and comfortable, he must control the effects of heat, cold, light, air, moisture, and dryness and foresee destructive potentialities such as fire, earthquake, flood, and disease.
The placement and form of buildings in relation to their sites, the distribution of spaces within buildings, and other planning devices discussed below are fundamental elements in the aesthetics of architecture.
Orientation.
The arrangement of the axes of buildings and their parts is a device for controlling the effects of sun, wind, and rainfall.
Within buildings, the axis and placement of each space determine the amount of sun it receives.
Orientation may control air for circulation and reduce the disadvantages of wind, rain, and snow.
The characteristics of the immediate environment also influence orientation : trees, land formation, and other buildings create shade and reduce or intensify wind, while bodies of water produce moisture and reflect the sun.
Architectural forms.
Planning may control the environment by the design of architectural forms that may modify the effects of natural forces.
Colour.
Colour has a practical planning function as well as an expressive quality because of the range of its reflection and its absorption of solar rays.
Since light colours reflect heat and dark colours absorb it, the choice of materials and pigments is an effective tool of environmental control.
Materials and techniques.
The choice of materials is conditioned by their own ability to withstand the environment as well as by properties that make them useful to human beings.
One of the architect's jobs is to find a successful solution to both conditions ; to balance the physical and economic advantages of wood against the possibility of fire, termites, , and mold, the weather resistance of glass and light metals against their high thermal conductivity, and many similar conflicts.
Interior control.
The control of the environment through the design of the plan and the outer shell of a building cannot be complete, since extremes of heat and cold, light, and sounds penetrate into the interior, where they can be further modified by the planning of spaces and by special conditioning devices.
Temperature, light and sound are all subject to control by the size and shape of interior spaces, the way in which the spaces are connected, and the materials employed for floors, walls, ceilings, and furnishings.
Today, heating, insulation, air conditioning, lighting, and acoustical methods have become basic parts of the architectural program.
Planning for use.
While environmental planning produces comfort for the senses (sight, feeling, hearing) and reflexes (respiration), planning for use or function is concerned with convenience of movement and rest.
Differentiation.
The number of functions requiring distinct kinds of space within a building depends not only upon the type of building but also upon the requirements of the culture and the habits and activities of the individual patrons.
A primitive house has a single room with a hearth area, and a modern one has a separate areas for cooking, eating, sleeping, washing, storage, and recreation.
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Now do you not see that the eye embraces the beauty of the whole world?
It counsels and corrects all the arts of mankind.
It is the prince of mathematics, and the sciences founded on it are absolutely certain.
It has measured the distances and sizes of the stars it has discovered the elements and their location.
It has given birth to architecture and to perspective and to the divine art of painting.
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Architecture the art of building in which human requirements and construction materials are related so as to finish practical use as well as an aesthetic solution, thus differing from the pure utility of engineering construction.
As an art, archeticture is essentially abstract and nonpresentational and involves the manipulation of the relationships of spaces, volumes, planes, masses, and voids.
Time is also an important factor in architecture , since a building is usually comprehended in a succesion of experiences rather than all at once.
In most architecture there is no one vantage point from which the whole structure can be understood.
The use of light and shadow, as well as surface decoration , can greatly enchance a structure.
The analysis of building types provides an insight into past cultures and eras.
Behind each of the greater styles lies not a casual trend nor a vogue, but a period of serious and urgent experimentation directed toward answering the needs of a specific way of life.
Climate, methods of labor, available materials, and economy of means all impose their dictates.
Each of the greater styles has been aided by the discovery of new consrtuction methods.
Once developed, a method survices tenaciously, diving way only when social changes or new building techniques have reduced it.
That evolutionary process is exemplified by the history of modern architecture , which developed from the first uses of structural iron and steel in the mid 19th cent.
Until the 20th.
There were three great developments in architectural construction - the post and intel, or trabeated, system ; the arch system, either the cohesive type, employing plastic materials harbening into a homogeneous mass, or the modern steel - skeleton system.
In the 20th cent.
New forms of building have been devised, with the use of reinforced concrete and the development of geodesic and stressed - skin (light material, reinforced) structures.
See also articles under countries, e.
G. , American architecture ; styles, e.
G. , baroque ; periods, e.
G. , Gothic architecture and art ; individual architects, e.
G. , Andrea Palladio ; individual stylistic and structural elements, e.
G. , tracery, orientation ; specific building types, e.
G. , pagoda, apartment house.
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СРОЧНО.
Красиво чтоб было
Westminster Abbey is the place where the coronation of nearly all kings and queens has taken place since the time of the Conquest.
Many of them are buried here as well as some other famous people of the country.
Westminster Abbey is famous for its architecture and history.
There are the graves of some of the world's famous writers, pocus and scientists : Chaucer, Charles Dickens, Tennyson, Thomas Hardy, Kipling and others are buried here.
There in the Poet's Corner there are memorials to Shakespeare and Milton, Burns, Byron, Scott, Thackeray and Longfellow.
Here is also the grave of the Unknown Soldier who was killed in the First World War.
Besides its museums, London has a lot of buildings that have played an imponant role in the history of architecture.
Buildings of St.
Paul's Cathedral or the Bank of England are considered classical architecture.
But there are also the neo - gothic Houses of Parliament and the high - tech Lloyds building, and numerous other public and private buildings, and houses and palaces have influenced architects around the world.
: People in London in the mid - nineteenth century greatly feared cholera?
: People in London in the mid - nineteenth century greatly feared cholera.
At this time doctors.
(believe) that cholera .
(circulate) through the air, and .
(not realize) that all the time raw sewage .
(enter) water supply, and that the disease .
(spread) through the domestic water system.
Although in the 17th and 18th centuries London .
(possess) a water supply system and a sewage system which were the changing situation.
Broken water pipes and sewage pipes often .
(flow) into one another, and most sewage .
(end up) in the River Thames, which was the main source of drinking water for thousands.
Between 1831 and 1867 a series of severe outbreaks .
(occur).
In the outbreak of 1848 - 49, there were over 30000 cases of the disease in London, and 15000 people .
(die).
By the mid 1860s the situation .
(improve) mainly because by then engineers .
(work on) the construction of a completely new sewage system, which they .
(complete) in 1875, and which is still in use today.
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Сәулет
.
Архитектура, құрылыс өнері, қажеттілігін, адамның және құрылыс материалдарымен байланысты тақырыптар ұсыну үшін, практикалық пайда, сондай - ақ эстетикалық шешімі, осылайша, айырмашылығы таза коммуналдық - инженерлік құрылыстар.
Өнер, архитектура - бұл, шын мәнінде, абстрактілі және неизобразительных қамтиды айла - бірі қарым - қатынас алаңдардың көлемін, жазықтықтың, масс және қуыссыз.
Сондай - ақ, маңызды фактор болып табылады, сәулет, әдетте түсінілуі ретпен уайым емес, барлық бірден.
Көптеген архитектура жоқ, бір көзқарас, оның барлық құрылымы болуы мүмкін понята.
Пайдалану жарық және көлеңкеде, сондай - ақ әрленуін, мүмкін айтарлықтай жақсартуға құрылымы.
Талдау үлгідегі ғимараттар көрініс береді өткен мәдениеттер мен дәуірлер.
Әрбір үлкен стильдер жатыр емес кездейсоқ тренд, бірде сән, бірақ кезеңінде маңызды және кезек күттірмейтін эксперименттер бағытталған қажеттіліктеріне жауап бере отырып, нақты өмір.
Климаттың әдістерін, еңбек, материалдар мен қаражатты үнемдеуді барлық мәселесі оңай өз келісімісіз қабылдады.
Әрқайсысы үлкен стильдер ықпал етті ашу жаңа әдістерін құрылысы.
Кейін әдісін әзірлеу аман цепко бере отырып, тек әлеуметтік өзгерістер немесе жаңа құрылыс технологиялары төмендетті.
Бұл эволюциялық процесс мысалында тарих қазіргі заманғы сәулет, ол дамыды бастап қолданысқа қолдану құрылымдық шойын және болат ортасында 19 - шы.
Архитектура
,
Архитектура искусства строительства, в которой человеческие требования и строительные материалы связаны с тем, чтобы обеспечить практическое использование, а также эстетическое решение, что отличается от чистой полезности инженерного строительства.
Как искусство, архитектура по существу абстрактна и нерепрезентативна и включает в себя манипулирование отношениями пространств, объемов, плоскостей, масс и пустот.
Время также является важным фактором в архитектуре, поскольку здание обычно понимается в последовательности опыта, а не сразу.
В большинстве архитектуры нет ни одной точки зрения, из которой можно понять всю структуру.
Использование света и тени, а также украшения поверхности могут значительно улучшить структуру.
Анализ типов зданий дает представление о прошлых культурах и эпохах.
За каждым из более стильных стилей лежит не случайная тенденция и не мода, а период серьезных и срочных экспериментов, направленных на удовлетворение потребностей конкретного образа жизни.
Климат, методы труда, доступные материалы и экономия средств все налагают их диктат.
Каждому из более стильных стилей способствовало открытие новых методов строительства.
После разработки метод выживает упорно, уступая место только тогда, когда социальные изменения или новые методы строительства сократили его.
Этот эволюционный процесс проиллюстрирован историей современной архитектуры, которая возникла из первых применений структурного железа и стали в середине XIX в.
До 20 - го века.
В архитектурном строительстве было три замечательных события - система пост - и - перемычки, или дорожная система ; Арочная система, либо когезионный тип, использующий упрочнение пластических материалов в однородную массу, либо тип тяги, в котором нагрузки принимаются и уравновешиваются в определенных точках ; И современной системой стального скелета.
В XX в.
Были разработаны новые формы строительства с использованием железобетона и разработки геодезических и стресс - кожных (светлых, армированных) конструкций.
См. Также статьи по странам, например, американская архитектура ; Стили, например, барокко ; Периоды, например, готическая архитектура и искусство ; Отдельные архитекторы, например, Андреа Палладио ; Отдельные стилистические и структурные элементы, например, узор, ориентация ; Конкретные типы зданий, например, пагода, многоквартирный дом.