Английский язык | 10 - 11 классы
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Architecture is the art and the technique of building, employed to fulfil the practical and expressive requirements of civilized people.
Almost every settled society that possesses the techniques for building produces architecture.
It is necessary in all but the simplest cultures ; without it, man is confined to a primitive struggle with the elements ; with it, he has not only a defence against the natural environment but also the benefits of a human environment, a prerequisite for and a symbol of the development of civilized institution.
The characteristics that distinguish a work of architecture from other man - made structures are the suitability of the work to use by human beings in general and the adaptability of it to particular human activities ; the stability and permanence of the work's construction ; and the communication of experience and ideas through its form.
All these conditions must be met in architecture.
The second is a constant, while the first and the third vary in relative importance according to the social function of buildings.
If the function is chiefly utilitarian, as in a
factory, communication is of less importance.
If the function is chiefly expressive, as in a monumental tomb, utility is a minor concern.
In some buildings such as churches and city halls, utility and communication may be of equal importance.
Every day Rukodelnitsa made the beds, cleans the house and dusted the furniture?
Every day Rukodelnitsa made the beds, cleans the house and dusted the furniture.
She milked the cow and fed the hens.
Rukodelnitsa cooked tasty meal for her sister and her mother.
She set the table and all the family had a tasty dinner.
Rukodelnitsa washed the dishes.
And she worked in the garden.
Rukodelnitsa swept the paths and gathered apples and vegetables.
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The architect usually begins to work when the site type and cost of a building have been determined.
Planning the environment.
The natural environment is at once a hindrance and a help, and the architect seeks both to invite its aid and to repel its attacks.
To make buildings habitable and comfortable, he must control the effects of heat, cold, light, air, moisture, and dryness and foresee destructive potentialities such as fire, earthquake, flood, and disease.
The placement and form of buildings in relation to their sites, the distribution of spaces within buildings, and other planning devices discussed below are fundamental elements in the aesthetics of architecture.
Orientation.
The arrangement of the axes of buildings and their parts is a device for controlling the effects of sun, wind, and rainfall.
Within buildings, the axis and placement of each space determine the amount of sun it receives.
Orientation may control air for circulation and reduce the disadvantages of wind, rain, and snow.
The characteristics of the immediate environment also influence orientation : trees, land formation, and other buildings create shade and reduce or intensify wind, while bodies of water produce moisture and reflect the sun.
Architectural forms.
Planning may control the environment by the design of architectural forms that may modify the effects of natural forces.
Colour.
Colour has a practical planning function as well as an expressive quality because of the range of its reflection and its absorption of solar rays.
Since light colours reflect heat and dark colours absorb it, the choice of materials and pigments is an effective tool of environmental control.
Materials and techniques.
The choice of materials is conditioned by their own ability to withstand the environment as well as by properties that make them useful to human beings.
One of the architect's jobs is to find a successful solution to both conditions ; to balance the physical and economic advantages of wood against the possibility of fire, termites, , and mold, the weather resistance of glass and light metals against their high thermal conductivity, and many similar conflicts.
Interior control.
The control of the environment through the design of the plan and the outer shell of a building cannot be complete, since extremes of heat and cold, light, and sounds penetrate into the interior, where they can be further modified by the planning of spaces and by special conditioning devices.
Temperature, light and sound are all subject to control by the size and shape of interior spaces, the way in which the spaces are connected, and the materials employed for floors, walls, ceilings, and furnishings.
Today, heating, insulation, air conditioning, lighting, and acoustical methods have become basic parts of the architectural program.
Planning for use.
While environmental planning produces comfort for the senses (sight, feeling, hearing) and reflexes (respiration), planning for use or function is concerned with convenience of movement and rest.
Differentiation.
The number of functions requiring distinct kinds of space within a building depends not only upon the type of building but also upon the requirements of the culture and the habits and activities of the individual patrons.
A primitive house has a single room with a hearth area, and a modern one has a separate areas for cooking, eating, sleeping, washing, storage, and recreation.
Complete the text with the words from the box and copy it down?
Complete the text with the words from the box and copy it down.
Havroshechka did all the work about the house?
Havroshechka did all the work about the house.
She cleaned the house, made the beds and dusted the furniture.
The girl washed the clothes too.
Then Havroshechka cooked meal for the family and set the table.
The girl washed the dishes.
After that Havroshechka worked in the garden.
She looked after the cow.
The girl fed the cow and gave water to it.
She liked the cow very much.
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Once upon a time on an island in the Red sea there lived a man.
One day he took flour and water, and carrots, and plums, and sugar and made himself a very big brown cake.
But just as he was going to eat it there came down to the beach the Rhinoceros with two piggy eyes and bad manners.
He said, how and the man left the cake and climbed to the top of a tree.
The Rhinoceros ate the cake and went away.
The man came down from the thee and said.
"Them that takes cakes, wich the man bakes, makes dreadful mistakes.
"
Five weeks later the weather was very hot and all the animals took off their skins.
The Rhinoceros left his skin on the beach and went into the water.
At that moment the man put cake crumbs inside the skin and climbed on the top of the tree.
The Rhinoceros came out of the water and put his skin on, and it tickled like cake crumbs in bed.
Не ran to the tree and rubbed, and rubbed himself against it.
And he rubbed his skin into great folds on his neck and over his legs.
And from that day a rhinoceros has great folds in his skin.
For the necessary derivatives from the words on the right and complete the sentences?
For the necessary derivatives from the words on the right and complete the sentences.
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Now do you not see that the eye embraces the beauty of the whole world?
It counsels and corrects all the arts of mankind.
It is the prince of mathematics, and the sciences founded on it are absolutely certain.
It has measured the distances and sizes of the stars it has discovered the elements and their location.
It has given birth to architecture and to perspective and to the divine art of painting.
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Красиво чтоб было
Westminster Abbey is the place where the coronation of nearly all kings and queens has taken place since the time of the Conquest.
Many of them are buried here as well as some other famous people of the country.
Westminster Abbey is famous for its architecture and history.
There are the graves of some of the world's famous writers, pocus and scientists : Chaucer, Charles Dickens, Tennyson, Thomas Hardy, Kipling and others are buried here.
There in the Poet's Corner there are memorials to Shakespeare and Milton, Burns, Byron, Scott, Thackeray and Longfellow.
Here is also the grave of the Unknown Soldier who was killed in the First World War.
Besides its museums, London has a lot of buildings that have played an imponant role in the history of architecture.
Buildings of St.
Paul's Cathedral or the Bank of England are considered classical architecture.
But there are also the neo - gothic Houses of Parliament and the high - tech Lloyds building, and numerous other public and private buildings, and houses and palaces have influenced architects around the world.
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срооооочноооо.
Architecture
.
Architecture the art of building in which human requirements and construction materials are related so as to furnish practical use as well as an aesthetic solution, thus differing from the pure utility of engineering construction.
As an art, architecture is essentially abstract and nonrepresentational and involves the manipulation of the relationships of spaces, volumes, planes, masses, and voids.
Time is also an important factor in architecture, since a building is usually comprehended in a succession of experiences rather than all at once.
In most architecture there is no one vantage point from which the whole structure can be understood.
The use of light and shadow, as well as surface decoration, can greatly enhance a structure.
The analysis of building types provides an insight into past cultures and eras.
Behind each of the greater styles lies not a casual trend nor a vogue, but a period of serious and urgent experimentation directed toward answering the needs of a specific way of life.
Climate, methods of labor, available materials, and economy of means all impose their dictates.
Each of the greater styles has been aided by the discovery of new construction methods.
Once developed, a method survives tenaciously, giving way only when social changes or new building techniques have reduced it.
That evolutionary process is exemplified by the history of modern architecture, which developed from the first uses of structural iron and steel in the mid - 19th cent.
Until the 20th cent.
There were three great developments in architectural construction—the post - and - lintel, or trabeated, system ; the arch system, either the cohesive type, employing plastic materials hardening into a homogeneous mass, or the thrust type, in which the loads are received and counterbalanced at definite points ; and the modern steel - skeleton system.
In the 20th cent.
New forms of building have been devised, with the use of reinforced concrete and the development of geodesic and stressed - skin (light material, reinforced) structures.
See also articles under countries, e.
G. , American architecture ; styles, e.
G. , baroque ; periods, e.
G. , Gothic architecture and art ; individual architects, e.
G. , Andrea Palladio ; individual stylistic and structural elements, e.
G. , tracery, orientation ; specific building types, e.
G. , pagoda, apartment house.
Переведите пожалуйста текстLondon is the capital of England, the capital of Great Britain, and the capital of the United Kingdom?
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London is the capital of England, the capital of Great Britain, and the capital of the United Kingdom.
It is the largest town in Europe and one of the oldest towns in the world.
The old Celts gave it its name, the Romans!
Made it the centre of their new colony, the Germanic invaders tried to burn and to destroy it, the victorious Normans made it the capital of the country.
The central part of London is full of historical remains.
Nearly every building, every bridge, every street, palace, house, and stone — each of them has its own story, its own past.
In London past and present are so mixed together that they cannot easily be separated and when you are in London you see the past in the present and the present in the past.
The oldest part of London is called the City.
In the City the streets and pavements are very narrow and the traffic is very heavy on weekdays.
That is because the most important London firms and banks have offices there.
But at weekends the City is almost dead.
The most fashionable and the most expensive part to live in is the West End.
It is situated between the City and Hyde Park.
The City and the West End are the heart of London ; they are the parts which everybody who comes to London must see and wants to see, because they are more interesting than any other part of London.
All the most interesting buildings, shops and offices are situated here.
The Tower of London, the Bank of England, the Mansion House where the Lord Mayor lives, the Law Courts, and many interesting old churches are situated in the City.
The Houses of Parliament with Big Ben, Westminster Abbey, the National Gallery and many theatres and good shops are in the West End.
London has many bridges over the Thames, more than twenty but the most interesting of them all is the Tower Bridge situated near the Tower of London.
The Tower of London is an old castle, with high walls, high towers, small windows and large gardens.
Once it was a royal residence, a strong fortress and a state prison.
Here many important people, among them two wives of Henry VIII, were imprisoned and beheaded.
One of the oldest and the most famous places of London is St.
Paul's Cathedral.
It has been destroyed and rebuilt several times since the original construction in the 7th century.
It stands in the centre of the so - called Little Britain.
A large part of Little Britain was destroyed during the war : the houses that were close to the Cathedral's walls disappeared and for the first time in centuries St.
Paul's Cathedral's beauty can be seen.
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Архитектура это искусство и техника строительства, используются для выполнения практических и выразительные требования цивилизованных людей в.
Почти каждый обосновался общество, которое обладает техники для строительства производит архитектуру.
Необходимо во всех, кроме самых простых культур ; без него, человек ограничивается примитивной борьбы с элементами ; с ним, у него есть не только защиту от природной среды, но и преимущества среды обитания человека, что является необходимым условием для и символ развития цивилизованного института.
Характеристики, которые отличают работу архитектуры от других искусственных сооружений являются пригодность работы для использования людьми в целом и адаптивности его конкретных видов деятельности человека ; стабильность и постоянство строительства произведения ; и обмен опытом и идеями по своей форме.
Все эти условия должны быть выполнены в архитектуре.
Второй является постоянной величиной, в то время как первый и третий различаются по относительной значимости в соответствии с социальной функции зданий.
Если функция в основном утилитарными, как в
завод, связь имеет меньшее значение.
Если функция главным выразительным, как в монументальной гробнице, утилита является незначительное беспокойство.
В некоторых зданиях, таких как церкви и городских залах, полезность и связи может иметь одинаковое значение.