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The track is one of the basic features of a railway.
It is also called the permanent way.
The fact is that in the early days of railroad building the workers first had to lay temporary tracks to transport the materials to the construction site.
And only after that they laid down the permanent tracks on the permanent way, as it was called.
The permanent way consists of rails, ties and ballast.
The railroad track of today is quite different from that used in the early days of railways.
The first tracks had no ballast, the rails were made of wood and rested on heavy blocks of granite.
Then the wooden rails were replaced by iron ones, and the granite blocks were replaced by wooden ties.
This kind of track, however, was not strong enough for heavy steam trains.
The discovery how to make cheap steel was of great importance to the railways for, when placed in the same track, steel rails had a life 15 (fifteen) times as long as iron rails.
The distance between the rails is called the gauge.
The standard gauge in most countries is 1, 435 ( one thousand four hundred thirty five ) mm while in Russia the railroads have a gauge of 1, 524 (one thousand five hundred twenty four) mm.
That gauge was finally adopted when the first main - line Moscow – St.
Petersburg railway was under construction (1842 one thousand eight hundred forty two - 1851 one thousand eight hundred fifty one).
Thus Russia was the world's first country where the uniform gauge was adopted for all railways.
In America the gauge was unified only in 1886 (one thousand eight hundred eighty six) .
The place where the ends of the rails meet in the track is known as the rail joint.
The rail joint has always been the weakest part of the track for nearly all the rails wear out first at the ends.
Some railroads have two or more tracks.
In order to make the trains pass from one track to another the railroads have a switch which is a very important element of the track.
The rails differ greatly in weight according to the kind of traffic which they are to carry when placed in the track.
The largest and heaviest rails are laid in the main - line tracks for it is these tracks which carry the largest volume of traffic.
The ties on most tracks were almost all of wood and in order to make them last longer they were treated with creosote.
The ties are not laid upon the earth for the earth cannot support the track structure.
They rest upon a bed of crushed rock, or gravel, which is called ballast.
Ballast supports the track structure, holds the track in position and provides needed drainage.
The history of railways is more than one century and a half.
During this period the track structure has been substantially improved.
One of the greatest improvements was the elimination of rail joints.
In order to reduce the number of joints the rails are welded into continuous lengths.
These continuous or long welded rails have greater strength and provide a smoother running of trains at far greater speeds.
Another improvement which has made it possible to increase speeds on railways is the use of concrete sleepers.
Thus in some countries , concrete sleepers have replaced wooden ones on heavily used main lines because of their advantages.
Concrete sleepers have a longer life and a far greater weight than those made of wood.
The greater weight of concrete sleepers provides the greater stability of track.
It is this factor which has greatly contributed to increased speeds.
How is the greater stability of track provided on modern railways ?
Why do concrete sleepers improve track stability?
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Ответить на вопросы по тексту.
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The track is one of the basic features of a railway.
It is also called the permanent way.
The fact is that in the early days of railroad building the workers first had to lay temporary tracks to transport the materials to the construction site.
And only after that they laid down the permanent tracks on the permanent way, as it was called.
The permanent way consists of rails, ties and ballast.
The railroad track of today is quite different from that used in the early days of railways.
The first tracks had no ballast, the rails were made of wood and rested on heavy blocks of granite.
Then the wooden rails were replaced by iron ones, and the granite blocks were replaced by wooden ties.
This kind of track, however, was not strong enough for heavy steam trains.
The discovery how to make cheap steel was of great importance to the railways for, when placed in the same track, steel rails had a life 15 (fifteen) times as long as iron rails.
The distance between the rails is called the gauge.
The standard gauge in most countries is 1, 435 ( one thousand four hundred thirty five ) mm while in Russia the railroads have a gauge of 1, 524 (one thousand five hundred twenty four) mm.
That gauge was finally adopted when the first main - line Moscow – St.
Petersburg railway was under construction (1842 one thousand eight hundred forty two - 1851 one thousand eight hundred fifty one).
Thus Russia was the world's first country where the uniform gauge was adopted for all railways.
In America the gauge was unified only in 1886 (one thousand eight hundred eighty six) .
The place where the ends of the rails meet in the track is known as the rail joint.
The rail joint has always been the weakest part of the track for nearly all the rails wear out first at the ends.
Some railroads have two or more tracks.
In order to make the trains pass from one track to another the railroads have a switch which is a very important element of the track.
The rails differ greatly in weight according to the kind of traffic which they are to carry when placed in the track.
The largest and heaviest rails are laid in the main - line tracks for it is these tracks which carry the largest volume of traffic.
The ties on most tracks were almost all of wood and in order to make them last longer they were treated with creosote.
The ties are not laid upon the earth for the earth cannot support the track structure.
They rest upon a bed of crushed rock, or gravel, which is called ballast.
Ballast supports the track structure, holds the track in position and provides needed drainage.
The history of railways is more than one century and a half.
During this period the track structure has been substantially improved.
One of the greatest improvements was the elimination of rail joints.
In order to reduce the number of joints the rails are welded into continuous lengths.
These continuous or long welded rails have greater strength and provide a smoother running of trains at far greater speeds.
Another improvement which has made it possible to increase speeds on railways is the use of concrete sleepers.
Thus in some countries , concrete sleepers have replaced wooden ones on heavily used main lines because of their advantages.
Concrete sleepers have a longer life and a far greater weight than those made of wood.
The greater weight of concrete sleepers provides the greater stability of track.
It is this factor which has greatly contributed to increased speeds.
What elements does the permanent way consist of?
What is the origin of the term permanent way?
What is the difference between the modern railroad track and the track of the early days of railways?
What is the gauge and what gauge is used on the Russia railways ?
Why is the joint the weakest part of the track ?
What is the switch intended for?
Ответить на вопросы по тексту?
Ответить на вопросы по тексту.
Даю 100 баллов!
The track is one of the basic features of a railway.
It is also called the permanent way.
The fact is that in the early days of railroad building the workers first had to lay temporary tracks to transport the materials to the construction site.
And only after that they laid down the permanent tracks on the permanent way, as it was called.
The permanent way consists of rails, ties and ballast.
The railroad track of today is quite different from that used in the early days of railways.
The first tracks had no ballast, the rails were made of wood and rested on heavy blocks of granite.
Then the wooden rails were replaced by iron ones, and the granite blocks were replaced by wooden ties.
This kind of track, however, was not strong enough for heavy steam trains.
The discovery how to make cheap steel was of great importance to the railways for, when placed in the same track, steel rails had a life 15 (fifteen) times as long as iron rails.
The distance between the rails is called the gauge.
The standard gauge in most countries is 1, 435 ( one thousand four hundred thirty five ) mm while in Russia the railroads have a gauge of 1, 524 (one thousand five hundred twenty four) mm.
That gauge was finally adopted when the first main - line Moscow – St.
Petersburg railway was under construction (1842 one thousand eight hundred forty two - 1851 one thousand eight hundred fifty one).
Thus Russia was the world's first country where the uniform gauge was adopted for all railways.
In America the gauge was unified only in 1886 (one thousand eight hundred eighty six) .
The place where the ends of the rails meet in the track is known as the rail joint.
The rail joint has always been the weakest part of the track for nearly all the rails wear out first at the ends.
Some railroads have two or more tracks.
In order to make the trains pass from one track to another the railroads have a switch which is a very important element of the track.
The rails differ greatly in weight according to the kind of traffic which they are to carry when placed in the track.
The largest and heaviest rails are laid in the main - line tracks for it is these tracks which carry the largest volume of traffic.
The ties on most tracks were almost all of wood and in order to make them last longer they were treated with creosote.
The ties are not laid upon the earth for the earth cannot support the track structure.
They rest upon a bed of crushed rock, or gravel, which is called ballast.
Ballast supports the track structure, holds the track in position and provides needed drainage.
The history of railways is more than one century and a half.
During this period the track structure has been substantially improved.
One of the greatest improvements was the elimination of rail joints.
In order to reduce the number of joints the rails are welded into continuous lengths.
These continuous or long welded rails have greater strength and provide a smoother running of trains at far greater speeds.
Another improvement which has made it possible to increase speeds on railways is the use of concrete sleepers.
Thus in some countries , concrete sleepers have replaced wooden ones on heavily used main lines because of their advantages.
Concrete sleepers have a longer life and a far greater weight than those made of wood.
The greater weight of concrete sleepers provides the greater stability of track.
It is this factor which has greatly contributed to increased speeds.
How is the greater stability of track provided on modern railways ?
Why do concrete sleepers improve track stability?
Ответить на вопросы по тексту?
Ответить на вопросы по тексту.
Даю 100 баллов!
The track is one of the basic features of a railway.
It is also called the permanent way.
The fact is that in the early days of railroad building the workers first had to lay temporary tracks to transport the materials to the construction site.
And only after that they laid down the permanent tracks on the permanent way, as it was called.
The permanent way consists of rails, ties and ballast.
The railroad track of today is quite different from that used in the early days of railways.
The first tracks had no ballast, the rails were made of wood and rested on heavy blocks of granite.
Then the wooden rails were replaced by iron ones, and the granite blocks were replaced by wooden ties.
This kind of track, however, was not strong enough for heavy steam trains.
The discovery how to make cheap steel was of great importance to the railways for, when placed in the same track, steel rails had a life 15 (fifteen) times as long as iron rails.
The distance between the rails is called the gauge.
The standard gauge in most countries is 1, 435 ( one thousand four hundred thirty five ) mm while in Russia the railroads have a gauge of 1, 524 (one thousand five hundred twenty four) mm.
That gauge was finally adopted when the first main - line Moscow – St.
Petersburg railway was under construction (1842 one thousand eight hundred forty two - 1851 one thousand eight hundred fifty one).
Thus Russia was the world's first country where the uniform gauge was adopted for all railways.
In America the gauge was unified only in 1886 (one thousand eight hundred eighty six) .
The place where the ends of the rails meet in the track is known as the rail joint.
The rail joint has always been the weakest part of the track for nearly all the rails wear out first at the ends.
Some railroads have two or more tracks.
In order to make the trains pass from one track to another the railroads have a switch which is a very important element of the track.
The rails differ greatly in weight according to the kind of traffic which they are to carry when placed in the track.
The largest and heaviest rails are laid in the main - line tracks for it is these tracks which carry the largest volume of traffic.
The ties on most tracks were almost all of wood and in order to make them last longer they were treated with creosote.
The ties are not laid upon the earth for the earth cannot support the track structure.
They rest upon a bed of crushed rock, or gravel, which is called ballast.
Ballast supports the track structure, holds the track in position and provides needed drainage.
The history of railways is more than one century and a half.
During this period the track structure has been substantially improved.
One of the greatest improvements was the elimination of rail joints.
In order to reduce the number of joints the rails are welded into continuous lengths.
These continuous or long welded rails have greater strength and provide a smoother running of trains at far greater speeds.
Another improvement which has made it possible to increase speeds on railways is the use of concrete sleepers.
Thus in some countries , concrete sleepers have replaced wooden ones on heavily used main lines because of their advantages.
Concrete sleepers have a longer life and a far greater weight than those made of wood.
The greater weight of concrete sleepers provides the greater stability of track.
It is this factor which has greatly contributed to increased speeds.
What elements does the permanent way consist of?
What is the origin of the term permanent way?
What is the difference between the modern railroad track and the track of the early days of railways?
What is the gauge and what gauge is used on the Russia railways ?
Why is the joint the weakest part of the track ?
What is the switch intended for?
What does the weight of the rails laid in the track depend on?
Why are the heaviest rails laid on the main - line tracks?
How can we make wooden ties last longer?
Are the ties laid upon the earth ?
Why aren’t they ?
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FROM THE HISTORY OF RAILWAYS IN GREAT BRITAIN
The history of railways in Great Britain began in the second part of the 18th century.
The first railways were horse - powered and were used for transporting coal, timber and ore.
Later on, horse - powered railways appeared in large cities and were used as passenger transport.
However, they did not last long.
In 1763, James Watt invented the stationary steam engine and George Stephenson was one of the first who put a steam engine on wheels.
He made a design of a locomotive but could not build it, as he had no money.
Some businessmen decided to construct a railway between Stockton and Darlington to see how Stephenson’s locomotive worked.
On the day when it was opened, a man on a horse went in front of the engine and shouted that the train was coming.
Stephenson, who was running his locomotive, asked the horseman to go away.
He put steam on and ran his locomotive at a speed of 12 miles per hour.
It was the beginning of steam - powered railways.
In 1829, the Liverpool - Manchester Railway was built, and the railway company offered a prize of £500 for the best steam train.
The prize was won by G.
Stephenson with his famous train the “Rocket”.
This locomotive was faster and stronger than the first one ; it could pull 13 tons and achieved an “unheard - of speed” of 29 miles (46 km) per hour.
At first, many people were afraid of the railways.
However, in 1842 the steam - powered railways were already in wide use in Britain.
It should be said * that the gauge was not the same on all the railways.
The famous English engineer Brunel considered that the * * broader the gauge, the easier would the trains run.
Following his advice the Great Western Company had constructed the railway network with a gauge of 7 feet.
That is why for many years there were two gauges in England : the 7 feet suggested by Brunel and 4 feet 8½ inches, offered by Stephenson.
It was inconvenient because where there was a break of gauges, delay was caused and time was wasted.
Angry people wrote to the newspapers and demanded to change the broad gauge.
At last in the House of Commons * * * the broad gauge was described as a “national evil”.
It was very difficult to alter the gauge as the engines, carriages, wagons were made for the broad gauge and more than 30 years “The Battle of the Gauges” lasted.
Only in 1892 the Great Western Railways was converted to the standard gauge.
Notes : * I t should be said – следует сказать * * the…, the – чем…, тем * * * the House of Commons – Палата Общин.
Укажите, какие из следующих утверждений соответствует содержанию текста.
Используйте фразы It is true, it is false.
Исправьте неверные утверждения
1.
The first horse - powered railways in Great Britain were used for transporting passengers in large cities.
2. The stationary steam engine was invented by James Watt.
3. The speed of the first Stephenson’s locomotive was 29 miles an hour.
4. The first Stephenson’s locomotive was tested on the Liverpool - Manchester Railway.
5. James Watt made a desing of the first locomotive.
6. Stephenson received a prize of fifty trousand pounds for his locomotive the “Rocket"
7.
At first lots of people were afraid of the railways.
8. The "Rocket" could pull more than thirteen tons.
9. In the 19th century, the gauge of all railways was 4 feet 8½ inches.
10. Now, most railways in Britain have the standard gauge.
Перевод текста Steel sleepers : a component of modern trackModern track has to cope with the growing demands of rail traffic, in particular with the constant increase in the weight and speed of trains?
Перевод текста Steel sleepers : a component of modern track
Modern track has to cope with the growing demands of rail traffic, in particular with the constant increase in the weight and speed of trains.
Railways have therefore progressively adopted longwelded rails, whish lessen wear and tear of rolling stock and mean longer life for rails, because wear at rail ends is avoided and there are fewer bolt holes which may originate cracks.
Makers of steel sleepers claim their products have proved fully adaptable to the requirements of modem track white not losing anything of their traditional qualities.
They guarantee perfect solidarity “rail and sleeper on the one hand and sleepers and ballast on the other.
Rail sleeper solidarity depends on the system of fastening adopted.
This is perfectly achieved by the simplest and most robust means, that is by direct fastening with bolts, clips and washers.
The good anchorage of the sleeper in the ballast is an indispensable element in track stability.
The reversed trough shape of steel steeper ensures excellent resistance to longitudinal displacement.
The present shape of steel sleepers is the outcome of long experience.
Manufacturers also assert that as well as its excellent performance in the track, the steel sleeper has other essential advantages : homogeneity, strength, long life and simple fastening.
Owing to their homogeneity, individual replacement of defective sleepers is done away with.
The mechanical strength and resistance to biological agents of steel sleepers are particularly valued in desert and tropical regions Great variations between day and night temperature do not affect them.
The standard gauge in most countries is 1, 435 mm while in Russia the railroads have a gauge of 1, 524 mm?
The standard gauge in most countries is 1, 435 mm while in Russia the railroads have a gauge of 1, 524 mm.
That gauge was finally adopted when the first main - line Moscow – St.
Petersburg railway was under construction (1842–1851).
Thus Russia was the world's first country where the uniform gauge was adopted for all railways.
In America, the gauge was unified only in 1886.
The discovery how to make cheap steel was of great importance to the railways for, when placed in the same track, steel rails had a life 15 times as long as iron rails?
The discovery how to make cheap steel was of great importance to the railways for, when placed in the same track, steel rails had a life 15 times as long as iron rails.
Подчеркните причастия IIThe track is one of the basic features of a railway?
Подчеркните причастия II
The track is one of the basic features of a railway.
It is also called the
permanent way.
In the early days of railroad building the workers first had
to lay temporary tracks to transport the materials to the construction site.
And only after that they laid down the permanent tracks or the permanent
way, as it was called.
The railroad track of today is quite different from the track used in
the early days of railways.
The first tracks had no ballast, the rails were
made of wood and rested on heavy blocks of granite.
Then the wooden rails
were replaced by iron ones, and the granite blocks were replaced by wooden
ties or sleepers.
This kind of track, however, was not strong enough for
heavy steam trains.
The discovery how to make cheap steel was of great
importance to the railways for, when placed in the same track, steel rails had
a life 15 times as long as iron rails.
The distance between the rails is called the gauge.
The standard
gauge in most countries is 1, 435 mm while in Russia the railroads have a
gauge of 1, 524 mm.
That gauge was finally adopted when the first main - line
Moscow – St.
Petersburg railway was under construction (1842–1851).
Thus
Russia was the world's first country where the uniform gauge was adopted
for all railways.
In America, the gauge was unified only in 1886.
1. Укажите have / has :The railroads _____ a switch which is a very important element of the track?
1. Укажите have / has :
The railroads _____ a switch which is a very important element of the track.
2. Укажите is / are :
The track ______ one of the basic feature of a railway.
3. Укажите do / does / am / are / is :
_____ the development of a country depend on transport?
4. Укажите doesn't / don't / aren't / isn't / am not :
If the engine _____ efficient, the losses of energy are large.
5. Задайте вопросы к предложению :
The choice of the monorail type depends upon climatic conditions, the territory, the number of passengers and so on.
. Перепишите и переведите текст?
. Перепишите и переведите текст.
THE OLDEST RAILWAY IN RUSSIA
The St.
Petersburg - Moscow Mainline is the oldest and the most outstanding railway in Russia.
The project of this railway was proposed by P.
P. Melnikov.
According to his project “chugunka” was planned as a double - track line, 664 km long, with the 5 feet gauge (now the standard), steam - powered.
The speed of passenger and freight trains was supposed to be 34, 4 km and 16 km respectively.
The construction began in 1843 and lasted 8 years.
From the very beginning the builders faced many hardships because of severe climatic and difficult geological conditions.
Hundreds of kilometers of track were laid down through forests and marshes, many rivers were crossed.
The line is virtually straight and level.
185 bridges and 19 viaducts were built to make the line as straight as possible.
There is a legend that the route of the railway was chosen by the Tzar Nikolay I, who drew a straight line between the two cities on the map and ordered this line to be the route of the railway.
But the fact is that the construction of the line was preceded by long and thorough surveying work, a great part of which was done by P.
P. Melnikov himself.
All the component parts of the track, bridges and viaducts were produced at Russian plants by using only domestic materials, including timber for sleepers and cast iron for rails.
One has to give credit * to the first railway builders, who laid the track in extremely difficult conditions.
Nobody took care of the workers and nobody paid attention to their working conditions.
People lived in “shalashes” or dug - outs ; ate often tainted food ; worked from dawn till sunset, often in water up to their knees and their main tools were spades, picks, axes, wheelbarrows and horse - drawn carts.
The cruel exploitation of the workers was exposed by Nekrasov in his famous poem “The Railway”.
The railroad was officially opened for traffic on November 1, 1851.
The first train departed from St.
Petersburg at 11.
15 and arrived in Moscow 21 hours 45 minutes later.
There were 17 passengers in the first - class cars, 63 – in the second - class cars and 112 – in the third - class cars.
The speed of the first trains was 40 km / h but two years later it was increased up to 60 km / h.
It was the world’s record in the speed of passenger trains.
Notes : * one has to give credit – нужно отдать должное
.
Укажите, какие из следующих утверждений соответствуют содержанию текста.
Используйте фразы : It is right.
It is wrong.
Исправьте неверные утверждения.
The Trans - Siberian Railway is the oldest railway in Russia.
2. P.
P. Melnikov made the project of the St.
Petersburg – Moscow mainline.
3. It was a single - track line.
4. This line had many curves and gradients.
5. The construction of the line was preceded by long and thorough surveying work.
6. All the materials for the construction were imported from Britain.
7. Rails were made of cast iron.
8. The railway was opened for traffic in 1851.
9. The first train departed from Moscow at midnight.
10. The train consisted of first - class cars only.
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1) During this period the track structure has been substantially improved.
One of the greatest improvements was the elimination of rail joints.
In
order to reduce the number of joints the rails are welded into
continuous lengths.
These continuous or long welded rails have greater
strength and provide a smoother running of trains at far greater speeds.
2) Another improvement which has made it possible to increase speeds on
railways is the use of concrete sleepers.
Thus in some countries ,
concrete sleepers have replaced wooden ones on heavily used main lines
because of their advantages.
Concrete sleepers have a longer life
and a far greater weight than those made of wood.
The greater weight of
concrete sleepers provides the greater stability of track.
It is this factor which has greatly contributed to increased speeds.
Ответ взял прямо из текста.
Насколько я помню, так надо делать в подобных заданиях.