Английский язык | 5 - 9 классы
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But in modern times most general customs i.
E. customs universally observed throughout the the realm)either do not exist or have become absorbed in rules of law.
For example many of early rules of the common law were general customs which the courts adopted, and they have become laws.
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Governments have many ways to be sure that citizens obey the law.
They explain to the public what the law is and try to provide social support for law and order.
They use people forces to investigate crimes and catch criminals.
They use courts to complete the investigation of criminal and civil offences and to pass sentences to punish the guilty and deter others.
And they try to re - educate and reform people who have broken the law.
Which of these is most effective in enforcing the law?
The laws of all countries are in written records - the legal codes of countries, the statutes and case judgments of common law countries, etc.
Many people do not know where to find these records.
But ignorance of the law is almost never a defence for breaking it.
Governments usually expect citizens to know the laws.
However, there are many laws, such as those prohibiting theft, assault and dangerous driving, which simply reflect social and moral attitudes to everyday behavior.
In such cases a person knows he is breaking the law, even if he doesn't know exactly which law it is.
1)What ways do goverments use to make citizens obey law?
2)What do goverments use police force for?
3)What do they use coutrs for?
4)What laws reflect social and moral attitudes to everyday behavior?
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The Sources of English Law On the Continent the writings of legal authors form an Important source of law.
In England, in accordance with the tradition the courts are the interpreters of the law.
The "sources" of law are the sources to which the courts turn in order to |determine what it is.
From the aspect of their sources, laws are, traditionally divided into two main categories according to" the form in which they are made.
They may either be written or unwritten.
These traditional terms are misleading, because the expression "written" law signifies any law that is formally acted, whether reduced to writing or not, and the expression - “unwritten" law signifies all unenacted laws.
For example, judicial decisions are often reduced to writing in the form of law reports but as they are not formal enactments they are "unwritten" law.
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There have been, and will continue to be, different definitions of law.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384 - 322 B.
C. ) saw law as a "pledge that citizens of a state will do justice to one another".
The Roman philosopher Cicero (106 - 43 B.
C. ) contended that law was the agreement of reason and nature, the distinction between the just and the unjust.
Law consists of enforcement rules governing relationship among individuals and between individuals and their society.
Law is one of the most necessary institutions.
No society could exits if all people did just as they pleased, without regard for the rights of others.
Nor could a society exits if its members did not recognize that they also have certain obligations towards one another.
Law establishes the rules that define a person's rights and obligations.
Law also sets penalties for people who violate these rules, and it states how government shall enforce the rules and penalties.
In most societies, various government bodies, especially police agencies and courts, see that laws are obeyed.
Because a person can be penalized for disobeying law, most people agree that laws should be just.
With reference to its origin, law is derived from judicial precedents, from legislation or from custom.
With reference to is subject - mater, law is private or public.
Private law determines a person's legal rights and obligations in many kinds of activities that involve other people.
The great majority of lawyers and judges spend most of their time dealing with private - law matters.
More than 10 million cases are field in the United States courts each year.
These cases are called lawsuits or civil suits.
Private la can be divided into six major branches according to the kinds of legal rights and obligations involved.
These branches are :
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1. Informal rules have very little to do with the laws created by governments.
2. English law has developed through decisions in individual cases.
3. The system based on English Common law has been adopted by many Commonwealth countries and most of the United States.
4. When they were codifying their legal systems they looked to the examples of Revolutionary and Napoleonic France.
5. Versions of Roman law had long influenced manyj parts of Europe but had little impact on English law.
6. Many customs have existed since "time immemorial".
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The legal system in the United Kingdom (UK) The study of law distinguishes between public law and private law, but in legal practice in the UK the distinction between civil law and criminal law is more important to practising lawyers.
Public law relates to the state.
It is concerned with laws which govern processes in local and national government and conflicts between the individual and the state in areas such as immigration and social security.
Private law is concerned with the relationships between legal persons, that is, individuals and corporations, and includes family law, contract law and property law.
Criminal law deals with certain forms of conduct for which the state reserves punishment, for example murder and theft.
The state prosecutes the offender.
Civil law concerns relationships between, private persons, their rights, and their duties.
It is also concerned with conduct which may give rise to a claim by a legal person for compensation or an injunction – an order made by the court.
However, each field of law tends to overlap with others.
For example, a road accident case may lead to a criminal prosecution as well as a civil action for compensation.
Rewrite the following sentences as in the example : Example : We live in the city which was founded more than 1, 500 years ago?
Rewrite the following sentences as in the example : Example : We live in the city which was founded more than 1, 500 years ago.
— We live in the city founded more than 1, 500 years ago.
1. Money bills which are concerned with taxation are always introduced by the Commons.
2. The first ten amendments to the Constitution of the USA which is known as the Bill of Rights were adopted in 1971.
3. There are 91 districts courts and special courts which all were established by the Congress of the USA.
4. English medieval law which is administered by courts reflected the «common» traditions and customs of the USA.
5. The common law is not based on the principle of deciding cases by reference to written statutes.
6. The civil law which is found in continental Europe can be contrasted to the common5law system.
7. The jury which is selected from local citizens applies the law to reach a verdict.
8. The interpretation of law which is made by appellate courts forms the precedents that govern future cases.
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The Sources of English Law On the Continent the writings of legal authors form an Important source of law.
In England, in accordance with the tradition the courts are the interpreters of the law.
The "sources" of law are the sources to which the courts turn in order to |determine what it is.
From the aspect of their sources, laws are, traditionally divided into two main categories according to" the form in which they are made.
They may either be written or unwritten.
These traditional terms are misleading, because the expression "written" law signifies any law that is formally acted, whether reduced to writing or not, and the expression - “unwritten" law signifies all unenacted laws.
For example, judicial decisions are often reduced to writing in the form of law reports but as they are not formal enactments they are "unwritten" law.
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The Sources of English Law 1.
On the Continent the writings of legal authors form an important source of law.
In England, in accordance with the tradition the courts are the interpreters of the law.
The ’’sources” of law are the sources to which the courts turn in order to determine what it is.
From the aspect of their sources, laws are traditionally divided into two main categories according to the form in which they are made.
They may either be written or unwritten.
These traditional terms are misleading, because the expression “written” law signifies any law that is formally enacted, whether reduced to writing or not, and the expression “unwritten” law signifies all unenacted laws.
For example, judicial decisions are often reduced to writing in the form of law reports, but as they are not formal enactments they are “unwritten” law.
2. Under the influence of the Code Napoleon many continental countries have codified their law, public and private.
On the Continent, therefore, the volume of written law is more than the volume of unwritten.
In England in accordance with the tradition writings of the laws had comparatively little respect in the past and for the most part have never been enacted.
So in England where more of the laws derive from judicial precedents, unwritten law is predominant.
This does not, of course, mean that none of English law is codified.
Many parts of it are codified : such as the law on the sale of goods (Sale of Goods Act 1979) and the law on partnership (Partnership Act 1890).
All that means that although Parliament may and does make any laws it pleases, there is no whole system of codification which prevails in many continental countries.
3. Two principal and two subsidiary sources of English law must be mentioned.
These principal sources are Legislation, and Judicial Precedent, the subsidiary sources are Custom and Books of Authority which carry a weight of authority almost equal to that of precedents.
Помогите пожалуйста перевести текст The English word “law” refers to limits upon various forms of behavior?
Помогите пожалуйста перевести текст The English word “law” refers to limits upon various forms of behavior.
Some laws are descriptive : they simply describe how people, or even natural phenomena, usually behave.
An example is the rather consistent law of gravity ; another is the less consistent laws of economics.
Other laws are prescriptive - they prescribe how people ought to behave.
For example, the speed limits imposed upon drivers that prescribe how fast we should drive.
They rarely describe how fast we actually do drive, of course.
In all societies, relations between people are regulated by prescriptive laws.
Some of them are customs - that is, informal rules of social and moral behavior.
Some are rules we accept if we belong to particular social institutions, such as religious, educational and cultural groups.
And some are precise laws made by nations and enforced against all citizens within their power.
Customs need not to be made by governments, and they need not be written down.
We learn how we are expected to behave in society through the instruction of family and teachers, the advice of friends, and our experiences in dealing with strangers.
Sometimes, we can break these rules without suffering any penalty.
But if we continually break the rules, or break a very important one, other members of society may ridicule us, act violently toward us or refuse to have anything to do with us.
The ways in which people talk, eat and drink, work, and relax together are usually called customs.
Order is rich with meaning.
Let’s start with “law and order”.
Maintaining order in this sense means establishing the rule of law to preserve life and to protect property.
To the seventeenth - century philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679), preserving life was the most important function of law.
He described life without law as life in a “state of nature”.
Without rules, people would live like predators, stealing and killing for personal benefit.
Members of every community have made laws for themselves in self - protection.
If it were not for the law, you could not go out in daylight without the fear of being kidnapped, robbed or murdered.
There are far more good people in the world than bad, but there are enough of the bad to make law necessary in the interests of everyone.
Even if we were all as good as we ought to be, laws would still be necessary.
How is one good man in a motorcar to pass another good man also in a motorcar coming in an opposite direction, unless there is some rule of the road?
Suppose you went to a greengrocery - and bought some potatoes and found on your return home that they were mouldy or even that some of them were stones, what could you do if there were no laws on the subject?
In the absence of law you could only rely upon the law of the jungle.
Every country tries, therefore, to provide laws, which will help its people to live safely and comfortably.
This is not at all an easy thing to do.
No country has been successful in producing laws, which are entirely satisfactory.
But the imperfect laws are better than none.
The most famous and oldest of the Towers customs is the Ceremony of?
The most famous and oldest of the Towers customs is the Ceremony of.
A)Changing the Guard b)Mounting the Guard c)the Keys d)Trooping the Colour.
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Но в наше время большинство общих таможенных т.
Е. обычаи повсеместно наблюдаемые в течение области) либо не существуют, либо стали всасывается в норм.
Например, многие из ранних правил общий закон были общие обычаи, которые приняты судами, и они стали законами.